Reading Nietzsche

Themes · Diagnosis

The Death of God

Cluster Diagnosis Writing period 1878–1888 First encounter 6 readings

What survives when the beliefs that supported a way of life lose their authority?

Nietzsche’s announcement of God’s death asks what the loss of Christian belief could mean for European morality, knowledge, and human purposes. The unbelievers who hear the madman in The Gay Science have already rejected belief in God, yet they do not understand the event he describes. The question reaches beyond accepting or denying a proposition: how deeply have inherited beliefs shaped the standards by which people live?

The readings follow different consequences: surviving habits of valuation, grief and disorientation, new freedom, renewed devotion, and suspicion toward the unconditional value of truth. Nihilism is one danger within this inquiry. The disappearance of belief neither guarantees despair nor establishes that new values have been created. Nietzsche’s own commitments must also enter the examination.

Essential first encounter

Six assignments, read in order. Follow the delayed consequences of the announcement, then examine the authority of the demand for truth that helps bring the inherited belief into question.

  1. Core

    The Gay Science Book III, §108

    A dead God can still cast a shadow

    Question: What can continue to organize life after the belief supporting it has weakened?

    Why it belongs: An image of Buddha’s surviving shadow introduces a distinction between God’s death and the work of overcoming its remaining effects. Nietzsche anticipates a long survival of shadows, rather than an immediate disappearance of religious habits and inherited assumptions. Read this brief announcement as an opening problem: the sections that follow investigate what those shadows might be and why explicit unbelief does not remove them automatically.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science §109: divinity preserved in pictures of nature; The Gay Science §344: inherited faith in truth.

    Online edition: Read §108 (trans. Thomas Common) · Preferred edition.

  2. Core

    The Gay Science Book III, §125

    Unbelievers who have not understood the event

    Question: Why does the madman’s announcement astonish people who already disbelieve in God?

    Why it belongs: On a bright morning, the madman confronts an amused gathering of unbelievers. He describes a collective deed whose consequences its participants have not yet understood, using images of a vanished horizon, directionless movement, and an unprecedented burden. This dramatic announcement concerns more than assent to atheism. Its delay between deed and recognition prevents the death of God from becoming a simple report that everyone has stopped believing.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science §343: the later European diagnosis; Zarathustra: the saint and the marketplace; Zarathustra: a different story of God’s murderer.

    Online edition: Read §125 (trans. Thomas Common) · Preferred edition.

  3. Core

    Thus Spoke Zarathustra Prologue §§2–5

    From the saint’s devotion to the crowd’s preferred future

    The link opens the Prologue. Begin at section 2 and stop after section 5. Common uses Superman for overman.

    Question: Why does the announcement lead into a dispute about the meaning of earthly life?

    Why it belongs: Zarathustra meets a saint who has not heard of God’s death, then addresses a crowd with a demand for fidelity to the earth and a hope for the overman. His warning about the last human being becomes the life the crowd requests. Read the sequence as several contrasting responses and failed communications, rather than a claim that the disappearance of belief automatically produces either aspiration or contentment.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science §125: an announcement its audience misses; Zarathustra: the later search for the saint; Zarathustra: reconsidering the marketplace.

    Online edition: Read Prologue §§2–5 (trans. Thomas Common) · Preferred edition.

  4. Core

    The Gay Science Book V, §343 (1887)

    Christian belief loses credibility; the consequences approach

    Question: How can an event threaten an inherited morality while also opening a new horizon?

    Why it belongs: Book V names the event more explicitly as the loss of credibility of belief in the Christian God and locates its unfolding consequences in Europe. Structures built upon that belief, including European morality, face a long disturbance. Yet the philosophers and free spirits described here experience an initial dawn. Their gratitude accompanies danger and uncertainty; it does not establish that the historical work is already complete.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science §125: consequences not yet understood; The Gay Science §344: what unbelief can retain; Genealogy III §27: Christianity’s self-overcoming.

    Online edition: Read §343 (trans. Thomas Common) · Preferred edition.

  5. Core

    The Gay Science Book V, §344 (1887)

    The inherited faith of the godless investigator

    Question: What happens when the commitment to truth turns upon the value of truth itself?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche questions the unconditional priority assigned to truth, even within an inquiry that distrusts other convictions. He traces this commitment to the Christian and Platonic identification of truth with divinity. Godless investigators can therefore retain a central inheritance of the belief they reject. The issue is what authorizes truth at any cost, rather than a blanket dismissal of knowledge or an instruction to prefer deception.

    Read alongside: Genealogy III §27: truthfulness examines its own foundation; The Gay Science §357: Christian truthfulness and atheism; Zarathustra: the pope’s interpretation of unbelief.

    Online edition: Read §344 (trans. Thomas Common) · Preferred edition.

  6. Core

    On the Genealogy of Morals Essay III §27

    Christian truthfulness turns against its own foundations

    Question: What happens when the demand for truth first rejects Christian belief and then questions its own authority?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche presents honest atheism as a result of Christianity’s long cultivation of truthfulness, which eventually forbids belief in God. A further turn remains: truthfulness must examine the meaning and value of the will to truth itself. He places his readers at the threshold of this second development and forecasts a long European crisis. The passage makes self-overcoming an unfolding problem, not an event whose moral consequences are already complete.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science §343; The Gay Science §344; Genealogy III §24.

    Online edition: Essay III §27 (trans. Horace B. Samuel) · Preferred edition.

Fuller route: tests and complications

Continue with these investigations after the first encounter. Each assignment opens its explanation and reading links in the work survey. Read within each group in order, using the question to guide the comparison.

1. How does belief acquire—and lose—credibility?

Compare an account of how a belief arose with an argument about whether it is true.

  1. Human, All Too Human — Volume I, §110
    Examine what religious claims and religious needs can tell us about one another.
  2. Human, All Too Human — Volume I, §114
    Ask what kind of self-understanding Christian interpretation cultivates.
  3. Daybreak — Book I, §92
    Read an earlier diagnosis of Christianity’s decline before the famous announcement.
  4. Daybreak — Book I, §95
    Distinguish historical explanation from the older contest over proofs.

2. Which shadows remain in the picture of the world?

What expectations can outlive the God who once guaranteed them?

  1. The Gay Science — Book III, §109
    Test the human purposes and judgments projected onto nature.
  2. Twilight of the Idols — Reason in Philosophy, §§1–6
    Follow the metaphysical habits embedded in concepts and language.
  3. Twilight of the Idols — How the True World Finally Became a Fable, stages 1–6
    Ask what remains when the true/apparent hierarchy loses its authority.

3. Does unbelief end the need to believe?

Compare challenges to theism, indifference to religion, and a continuing desire for certainty.

  1. Beyond Good and Evil — §53
    Separate objections to theistic belief from the fate of the religious instinct.
  2. Beyond Good and Evil — §54
    Consider the continuing argument over the soul and the self.
  3. Beyond Good and Evil — §58
    Examine the modern lack of time and attention for religious life.
  4. The Gay Science — Book V, §347 (1887)
    Ask what a conviction does for the person who needs it.

4. Who lives after God—and how?

Read the dramatic explanations together without making one character the final authority.

  1. Thus Spoke Zarathustra — IV, Retired
    Hear the former pope’s account of the God he served.
  2. Thus Spoke Zarathustra — IV, The Ugliest Man
    Compare shame before an all-seeing witness with the madman’s collective responsibility.
  3. Thus Spoke Zarathustra — IV, The Awakening, §§1–2; The Ass Festival, §§1–3
    Watch the renewed attraction of worship and the ambiguity of its celebration.
  4. The Gay Science — Book IV, §285
    Measure the demands of living without providence or a final reconciliation.

5. What happens to guilt, morality, and truth?

Which inherited evaluations disappear with belief, and which can become more demanding?

  1. On the Genealogy of Morals — Essay II §§19–22
    Follow the tempting expectation of declining guilt into the account that complicates it.
  2. On the Genealogy of Morals — Essay III §24
    Locate ascetic inheritance inside an uncompromising intellectual conscience.
  3. On the Genealogy of Morals — Essay III §§25–26
    Examine the authority of science and historical inquiry as proposed alternatives.
  4. The Gay Science — Book V, §357 (1887)
    Trace Christian truthfulness into atheism and the renewed question of life’s value.

6. What would a new beginning require?

Distinguish an opening of possibility from an achieved answer about how to live.

  1. The Gay Science — Book III, §124
    Read the unsettling image of leaving the land behind.
  2. The Gay Science — Book V, §346 (1887)
    Let suspicion turn back upon the critics and their own valuations.
  3. Thus Spoke Zarathustra — III, On Old and New Tablets, §§1–8
    Consider the demands and difficulties of creating values.
  4. Thus Spoke Zarathustra — IV, On the Higher Man, §§1–20
    Test the higher human beings’ capacities after God’s death.

Keep these distinctions in view

Atheism and the death of God
Atheism concerns belief in God’s existence. The announcement in The Gay Science also concerns the delayed effects of losing an authority that shaped moral and intellectual life. Its audience already disbelieves; this is why their failure to understand matters.
The loss of belief and the survival of valuation
The abandonment of Christian doctrine does not establish that Christian moral expectations have disappeared. Nietzsche investigates continuities within unbelief, including the unconditional demand for truth. Their survival is a question for interpretation, not a reason to call every secular commitment secretly religious.
A European diagnosis and a universal historical fact
These passages largely address European Christianity and the intellectual culture Nietzsche knew. Read their claims about decline as his diagnoses and expectations. They do not establish that religion has vanished everywhere or that all believers have undergone the same event.
The death of God and nihilism
The weakening of inherited authority can produce disorientation, liberation, new commitments, or renewed attachment to familiar certainties. Nihilism is one problem raised by that change. Neither unbelief nor the loss of a particular ideal determines the whole response.
Historical explanation and logical refutation
Explaining the conditions under which a belief arose changes the inquiry into its credibility and function. That explanation is not automatically a deductive proof that the belief is false. Daybreak §95 explicitly contrasts a historical approach with earlier refutations.
Inquiry and the unconditional value of truth
The Gay Science §344 and Genealogy III ask why truth should be sought at any cost. Questioning that demand is different from asserting that evidence never matters. The inquiry concerns the value assigned to truth and the commitments that authorize it.
Dramatic voices and philosophical conclusions
The madman, Zarathustra, the retired pope, and the ugliest man speak in different scenes to different listeners. Compare their accounts of God’s death and their responses to it. A character’s claim can expose a problem without becoming the author’s final explanation.
Abolishing the true world and abolishing reality
Twilight’s six-stage fable removes a hierarchy in which a supposedly superior world devalues the world of experience. Its last stage also removes the opposing category of the merely apparent. It does not follow that nothing exists or that every subsequent valuation has been settled.
Christian theism and other uses of divine language
The notebooks sometimes explore gods or divinity outside the Christian moral framework they criticize. Attend to the function of these experiments: an image of affirmation or plurality need not restore the providential, judging God whose authority is at issue.
Books, retrospective prefaces, and notebooks
An aphorism in an authorized book, a later preface, and a working note occupy different positions in the argument. The Will to Power is a posthumous selection and arrangement. Its entry numbers identify that compilation, not a continuous sequence of arguments Nietzsche prepared for publication.

Explore by work

46 assignments across 8 works, including the six starting readings. Core identifies that first encounter; development deepens a question; complication tests an apparent answer; extension follows a related problem. The survey begins with the historical and psychological inquiries of the middle works, then follows the announcement and its consequences. These earlier inquiries illuminate the later problem without already containing its complete formulation. Daybreak’s preface dates from 1886, and Book V of The Gay Science was added in 1887. Dramatic speeches, aphorisms, and polemical arguments require different kinds of attention.

Human, All Too Human5 reading assignments

These selections from Volume I (1878) prepare questions later gathered around the death of God: what supports religious belief, what happens when consolation loses credibility, and how divine images shape self-judgment. They are earlier investigations rather than statements of the later announcement. Nietzsche’s psychological explanations and historical comparisons remain arguments to assess, not settled findings about religion.

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Daybreak6 reading assignments

The numbered sections below belong to the 1881 book and investigate belief, religious authority, and the persistence of inherited feelings. They provide context for the later announcement without already establishing its full meaning. The later Preface is dated 1886: read its account of morality questioning itself as a retrospective interpretation, not as evidence for what the first edition explicitly announced.

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The Gay Science10 reading assignments

The first four books appeared in 1882; Book V was added in 1887. The early announcements distinguish the death of God from the disappearance of God’s shadows. The later book revisits the credibility of Christian belief, its European consequences, and the commitments that can survive inside unbelief. Its speakers experience uncertainty, liberation, and suspicion rather than one uniform aftermath.

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Thus Spoke Zarathustra10 reading assignments

The death of God moves through encounters, speeches, jokes, and competing accounts of how a god might die. The saint, former pope, ugliest human being, and higher guests do not speak with one voice. Follow who tells each story, how Zarathustra answers, and how hopes for creation coexist with attachments that return in unexpected forms.

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Beyond Good and Evil5 reading assignments

The religious chapter distinguishes challenges to theism, criticism of the soul, continued religious need, and practical indifference. Its final sections also assess religion as an instrument of social hierarchy. These different lines of inquiry complicate any account in which declining belief means that religion and its effects have simply disappeared.

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On the Genealogy of Morals5 reading assignments

The Genealogy asks what survives when belief in God becomes untenable: moralized guilt, the demand for a meaning of suffering, and unconditional commitment to truth. Its central argument makes Christian truthfulness a force that turns against Christian belief and then becomes a problem for itself.

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Twilight of the Idols2 reading assignments

Twilight examines how philosophical concepts and everyday grammar can sustain a metaphysical picture after explicit belief weakens. Its compressed history of the true world then removes the hierarchy between a superior reality and this allegedly inferior world, opening the question of how to think and value without it.

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The Antichrist3 reading assignments

These polemics attack the theological inheritance of philosophy and the value of the Christian conception of God. They extend the inquiry beyond whether a deity exists to what a conception of divinity authorizes. Nietzsche’s portraits of Kant, religious history, and Paul remain arguments to examine rather than neutral summaries of their subjects.

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The Will to Power: notebook readings

23 numbered entries in 14 assignments develop 6 questions raised by the published works. Begin with the shorter starting route, then follow the questions that interest you.

These notes investigate what the loss of belief in the Christian God leaves behind: habits of valuation, demands for authority, standards of knowledge, and possibilities for renewed interpretation. The selections keep the death of God distinct from a completed disappearance of religion or an automatic collapse into nihilism, while tracing the connections Nietzsche proposes among them.

A shorter starting route

Read these seven entries in order, then explore the topic groups for fuller explanations and related readings. They are a first selection within the 23 entries below.

  1. §2 — Begin with the loss of authority in the highest inherited values.
  2. §5 — Trace how truthfulness challenges the interpretation that cultivated its authority.
  3. §18 — Ask why attachment to morality may intensify after belief in God fades.
  4. §20 — Follow the demand for an unquestionable purpose into new authorities.
  5. §455 — Examine the motives behind both the desire to believe and to disbelieve.
  6. §471 — Question whether confidence in reason preserves an expectation of divine truthfulness.
  7. §405 — Consider how inherited discipline can open uncertain possibilities beyond its original home.
How does an inherited authority come apart?2 assignments · 4 entries

Begin with the values attached to belief and the truthfulness that can turn against their justification.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §1, §2

    The wider crisis of authority

    Question: What happens when the highest values lose the authority through which they supplied purpose?

    Why it belongs: The opening plan connects European nihilism to Christian moral interpretation and follows the difficulty through knowledge, politics, history, and art. The next numbered entry condenses the problem into the loss of authority in the highest values. Read together, they broaden the death of God into a question about inherited standards, without establishing that every loss of religious belief must produce the same consequences.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §125; The Gay Science — §343.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §4, §5

    The protection that cultivates its own critic

    Question: How can an interpretation that gives people worth train them to question the grounds of that worth?

    Why it belongs: Christian morality first appears as a protection against despair: it gives human beings importance and makes suffering interpretable. Truthfulness then turns against the interpretation that cultivated it, while the needs formed under its authority remain active. The sequence helps explain the distance between rejecting a doctrine and changing a way of living; the loss of credibility can leave unresolved demands that belief had previously met.

    Read alongside: On the Genealogy of Morality — III §27; The Gay Science — §125; The Gay Science — §343.

Back to the notebook guide · Compare the published works

Which demands survive disbelief?3 assignments · 5 entries

Follow moral standards and expectations of purpose into their apparently secular forms.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §17, §18

    Atheism and the survival of a moral ideal

    Question: Can the world still be judged against a divine ideal after belief in its God has been abandoned?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche reads Schopenhauer as retaining an ideal against which existence is condemned, even after the personal God has been rejected. The following note describes people holding more tightly to morality when their former place in the universe becomes doubtful. These claims direct attention to standards of human dignity and perfection that may outlast their theological setting, rather than treating a profession of atheism as the end of the inquiry.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §108; The Gay Science — §344; On the Genealogy of Morality — III §27.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §20

    New authorities for an old need

    Question: Where does the demand for an externally guaranteed purpose go when divine authority loses its force?

    Why it belongs: The habit of receiving a purpose from an unquestionable authority can survive the authority itself. Nietzsche follows that need into conscience, reason, collective opinion, history, and projects of happiness, then asks about the responsibility of setting a goal. The note gives a concrete way to investigate the continued influence of religious expectations in forms of thought that may understand themselves as emancipated from religion.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §108; The Gay Science — §125; Thus Spoke Zarathustra — Prologue §§2–5.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §30, §1021

    Christian valuations beyond Christian dogma

    Question: What evidence would show that a secular ideal continues the valuations of the religion it rejects?

    Why it belongs: These notes follow Christian moral expectations into political hopes, interpretations of history, self-sacrifice, and cultural ideals after dogmatic belief weakens. Nietzsche’s targets include socialism, pity, and egalitarian standards, so the analysis carries his own contested commitments about rank. Read the proposed continuities as arguments to examine: a resemblance between ideals does not by itself establish their origin, worth, or dependence on Christian belief.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §108; The Gay Science — §343; On the Genealogy of Morality — III §27.

Back to the notebook guide · Compare the published works

How do people come to need and interpret belief?3 assignments · 5 entries

Examine accounts of religious experience and the motives that can sustain both belief and disbelief.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §135, §136

    Human powers attributed to a divine cause

    Question: Why might people experience their strongest states as evidence of a power outside themselves?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche proposes that unfamiliar intensity and power can be experienced as effects of an external agent, separating the human person from capacities attributed to God. This places a question about interpretation beneath the argument over belief: what have people learned to regard as their own? The notes offer speculative and polemical psychologies of religion, whose explanatory reach must be assessed rather than assumed for every religious experience.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §125; Thus Spoke Zarathustra — Prologue §§2–5.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §137

    Recognizing capacities as one’s own

    Question: How does self-understanding change when people take responsibility for achievements once attributed to divine agency?

    Why it belongs: This note complicates a simple account of religion as self-abasement by describing religious kinship and inspiration as supports for pride. It then follows the gradual recognition of elevated states and achievements as human capacities. The movement provides a question for the aftermath of divine authority: how might people reinterpret what they can do without assuming that every source of worth disappeared with its former explanation?

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §343; Thus Spoke Zarathustra — Prologue §§2–5.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §240, §455

    Reasons for belief, reasons for disbelief

    Question: How can fear, comfort, opposition, or a desire for power be mistaken for an interest in truth?

    Why it belongs: The discussion of Pascal contrasts fear of possible damnation with the later defense of Christianity through its comforting effects. A second note extends scrutiny to both the desire to believe and the desire to disbelieve, questioning their identification with truthfulness. This makes the investigation apply to the unbeliever as well as the believer: the advantages expected from a conclusion require examination alongside the reasons offered for it.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §344; On the Genealogy of Morality — III §27.

Back to the notebook guide · Compare the published works

Where does theology persist in philosophical expectations?2 assignments · 3 entries

Look beyond explicit doctrines to the assumptions that guide knowing and evaluating.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §471, §578

    Reason, truth, and inherited moral expectations

    Question: Why assume that the world must answer to our reason or that a truer world must also be better?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche links trust in the fit between reason and reality to an inherited confidence in divine truthfulness. He also traces moral preferences within accounts of knowledge, including the elevation of a reality purified of change, conflict, and imperfection. These notes extend the question of God’s surviving influence into philosophy and inquiry, while leaving the proposed genealogies and their implications for knowledge open to criticism.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §108; The Gay Science — §344.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §251

    From disproving a doctrine to assessing its values

    Question: What remains unexamined when criticism of Christianity stops at whether its claims are true?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche argues that disputes about God’s existence or the factual claims of Christianity can leave its moral valuations intact. He redirects attention to what those values do to life and attacks strategies that place doctrine beyond possible refutation. The passage’s hostility to Christian morality is explicit; its methodological challenge is to distinguish questions about a belief’s truth, its authority, and the worth of the practices it supports.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §344; On the Genealogy of Morality — III §27; The Gay Science — §125.

Back to the notebook guide · Compare the published works

Does the rejection of the moral God exhaust divine possibilities?2 assignments · 4 entries

Read these speculative alternatives in relation to the particular conception of God being challenged.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §151, §1035

    God imagined beyond moral perfection

    Question: What changes if the rejected conception is specifically a God defined through moral goodness?

    Why it belongs: One note questions the inference from the untenability of the Christian moral God to the exclusion of every possible god. The other imagines divinity encompassing the tensions and contrasts of life instead of narrowing them to moral perfection. These experiments complicate the scope of the death of God; they invite interpretation without supplying a settled replacement theology or announcing a return to established religious belief.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §125; The Gay Science — §343; Thus Spoke Zarathustra — Prologue §§2–5.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §1036, §1037

    A protected God and an alternative vocabulary of power

    Question: Does withdrawing God beyond knowledge protect an inherited ideal from what experience might suggest?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche questions the move that preserves a benevolent God by placing that God beyond the known world. The following note experiments with a conception centered on power after setting aside supreme goodness and wisdom. Read them as challenges to the features people insist divinity must possess: the proposals explore alternatives and expose assumptions, but do not provide a demonstration that another divine being exists.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §108; The Gay Science — §344; The Gay Science — §125.

Back to the notebook guide · Compare the published works

What becomes possible after an interpretation loses its authority?2 assignments · 2 entries

End with the pressures of the crisis and the uncertain opportunities opened by inherited powers of criticism.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §55

    The loss of one interpretation and the threat to all meaning

    Question: Why might the collapse of a moral interpretation be experienced as the loss of every possible meaning?

    Why it belongs: This extended note tests what follows when the interpretation that made existence bearable loses credibility. It connects the resulting crisis to the position of sufferers and rulers, then tests the possibility of enduring a world without an ultimate goal through the thought of recurrence. Nietzsche’s hierarchy and harsh judgments remain visible within that experiment; they are part of what must be assessed in its proposed response.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §125; The Gay Science — §343; On the Genealogy of Morality — III §27.

  • Notebook reading

    The Will to Power §405

    The inherited strength that opens new possibilities

    Question: Could the discipline learned under an old morality supply the power to leave it behind?

    Why it belongs: Nietzsche asks whether morality’s self-destruction expresses a strength acquired through its own demanding history, including the discipline of conscience. The note turns toward unexplored possibilities without claiming to know the destination. Its image of venturing into an unfamiliar world can be read beside the renewed openness of The Gay Science §343, while keeping the risks and uncertainties of that departure in view.

    Read alongside: The Gay Science — §343; On the Genealogy of Morality — III §27.

Back to the notebook guide · Compare the published works

For the original notebook arrangement and manuscript references, consult Nietzsche Source’s critical edition. Compare the notebook guides on nihilism, self-overcoming, and the overman for related questions.

Related extensions: what might follow?

Choose these comparisons after the central readings. They return to assignments explained in the survey.

Connections